A Place Based Approach to Rural School Counseling (JSC V20, Issue 1, Article 1)

Abstract

The authors mergethe American School Counselor Association’s National Model with place-based identity to demonstrate how place-based identity can impact the management and delivery of rural school counseling programs through enhancing rural school counselors’ understandings of (1) their own identities, (2) their students’ identities, and (3) the power of urbanormativity in their work. No known research examines place-based identity in school counseling and place-based identity is not an area of focus within school counseling preparation programs. Therefore, this manuscript fills a gap in research and practice, allowing rural school counselors to better understand themselves and the students they serve. 

Keywords: identity development, place-based identity, school counseling, rural, urbanormativity

A Place-Based Approach to Rural School Counseling 

Rural people and places are diverse, thriving, and contain many assets, but are often perceived negatively or from deficit lenses (Azano et al., 2021; Crumb et al., 2023; Fulkerson & Thomas, 2014). Due to this, rural places and people are often ignored in research and policies (Lavalley, 2018; Showalter et al., 2019). Rural and place-based identities are also overlooked compared to other social identities (Cain et al., 2020; Cain & Willis, 2022). However, especially for rural people, place-based identities can be key personal or social identities, which can hold much meaning and value (Cain, 2020). Thus, rural school counselors should consider how place-based identities inform their self-understandings and viewpoints as well as assist with the development and support of their students (Appling & Robinson, 2021; Benedetto & Olisky, 2001; Duquette et al., 2023; Holcomb-McCoy, 2005; Simons & Beck, 2020).  

This article will merge the American School Counselor Association’s (ASCA) National Model (ANM) with place-based identity to demonstrate how place-based identity can impact the management and delivery of rural school counseling programs. Specifically, we selected Cain’s (2020) Place-Based Identity Model for our theoretical foundation to encourage multifaceted understandings of place-based identities. No known research discusses or examines place-based identity in school counseling and place-based identity is not an area of focus within school counseling preparation programs. By exploring place-based identities within the ANM, we hope to identify ways school counselors working in rural areas can strengthen their professional identities and programs, ultimately enhancing their ability to support students. To lay the foundation for this conceptual article, the following literature review defines rurality, provides an overview of the understandings of identity, and discusses school counseling in rural settings. 

Literature Review 

Defining Rurality 

There are dozens of different definitions of rurality used by U.S. federal agencies to distinguish between rural and urban places (Cromartie & Bucholtz, 2008; U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2024). These definitions can be based on administrative, land-use, or economic concepts, resulting in a substantial number of variations. The vast array of definitions can lead to confusion but reflects the reality that rural and urban are multidimensional, complex concepts (Cromartie & Bucholtz, 2008; U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2024).   

Another way of understanding rurality comes from Fulkerson and Thomas (2019). They explain there are three categories of definitions used to understand rural and urban: spatial-demographic, political-economic, and socio-cultural. Spatial-demographic definitions use population density to distinguish between rural and urban places with greater density meaning greater urbanicity. Alternatively, political-economic definitions rely on the organization and production within these areas to delineate them. Lastly, socio-cultural definitions are dependent on social and cultural constructions (Fulkerson & Thomas, 2019). Fulkerson and Thomas (2019) furthermore describe a system of urbanormativity that normalizes urbanization while marginalizing rurality within these meanings of place, positioning urban as standard and rural as deviant. These definitions align with the administrative, land-use, or economic concepts often used by U.S. federal agencies, but also underscores the socio-cultural differences of places. Socio-cultural definitions are especially pertinent to this article since they emphasize seeing places related to identity. 

All these delineations may leave one wondering, so what does rural mean? Falling within the category of administrative concepts, the most used definitions of rurality utilize population size and density (Fulkerson & Thomas, 2019). Thier et al. (2021) completed a systematic mapping review of U.S. rural education definitions and found that although “many self-identified scholars of rural education have advocated for thorough, nuanced understandings of rurality,” (p. 2) most studies “provide readers with no sense of what makes a place rural” (p. 2). Only about 30% of the studies in the systematic review provided a definition of rurality, about 17% of the sample used a federal definition, and of those the National Center for Education Statistics’ (NCES) locale codes were the most used (Thier et al., 2021).  

Given this, and the focus of this article being within education, we will describe the NCES locale codes as one administrative or spatial-demographic understanding of rurality. The NCES (n.d.) defines a locale as “a general geographic classification that describes the type of area where a school is located” (para. 1). All territories within the U.S. are divided into one of four types (i.e., rural, town, suburban, or city) and then divided into “three subtypes based on population size or proximity to populated areas” (para. 1). Rural territories contain less than 2,500 people, rooted in the 2010 Census-defined population threshold for rural areas (NCES, n.d.; Ratcliffe, 2022). Rural territories are then divided into three subtypes (i.e., fringe, distant, and remote), with fringe locales being closest to populated areas (i.e., less than or equal to 5 miles from an urbanized area and less than or equal to 2.5 miles from an urban cluster) and remote locales being farthest from populated areas (i.e., more than 25 miles from an urbanized area and more than 10 miles from an urban cluster; NCES, n.d.). Although the NCES locale codes offer one administrative or spatial-demographic understanding of rurality, when it comes to place-based identity a combination of definitions is employed. 

Overview of Identity 

Beyond definitions of rurality, comprehension of identity is a critical component to making sense of this article and the importance of place. Understandings of identity are situated in various disciplinary traditions, including sociology, psychology, social psychology, and human ecology (Jones & Abes, 2013; Torres et al., 2009). Although these disciplinary traditions view the concept of identity slightly different, identity development theories “share commitments to understanding the individual, his or her social context, the influence of social groups, and various dimensions of identity (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation)” no matter their disciplinary origin (Torres et al., 2009, p. 578).  

Within education, identity is usually rooted within psychosocial theories of development (Jones & Abes, 2013). In forming an identity, Erik Erickson postulated that the question becomes what one wants to make of themselves given the tools or resources they have at their disposal (Broderick & Blewitt, 2020). "Identity formation is the construction of a guide to relationships, career, and political and religious choices in adulthood" (Broderick & Blewitt, 2020, p. 366). Further, identity is conceptualized as an individual's personally held beliefs about themselves in relation to social groups (Broderick & Blewitt, 2020; Jones et al., 2009; Patton et al., 2016; Rodriguez, 2023). Identity is also understood as being socially constructed, meaning that an individual's sense of self and views about their social groups, as well as other social groups, are created through interactions in social contexts, with these social contexts dictating expectations and norms (Broderick & Blewitt, 2020; Jones & Abes, 2013; Torres et al., 2009; Rodriguez, 2023). Furthermore, the relative salience, or importance, of identity dimensions depends on the social contexts in which they are experienced (Jones & McEwen, 2000). 

School Counseling in Rural Settings  

Delivering a comprehensive school counseling program within a rural setting can differ from delivery within an urban setting, taking into account the needs of students, school, parents, and community (Perry, 2023; Showalter et al., 2023). While there is a reported propensity for a lack of funding, resources, and quality personnel within schools, as well as a lower socioeconomic status and parental employment obstacles within rural settings (Bright, et al., 2018; Gibbons et al., 2020), there also exists a dynamic sense of resourcefulness, collaboration, achievement, and motivation amongst rural populations (Crumb et al., 2023). Rural school counselors can help alleviate the disparities and promote the strengths within their rural settings by serving as social justice advocates and collaborating with stakeholders who have the ability to help increase opportunities for students (ASCA, 2019a; Perry, 2023).  

The comprehensive school counseling program provided by the rural school counselor should include advocacy efforts that foster systemic change within schools and communities (ASCA, 2019a). Efforts may include collaboration with state universities to provide college tour opportunities and events that bring rural students to campuses. Further, school counselors can coordinate visits from professionals from within and outside of the surrounding community to offer exposure to careers and educational opportunities beyond the parameters of the immediate rural setting. The idea here is if we cannot go to it, we’ll bring it to us, capitalizing available resources. Additionally, the comprehensive program should include collaboration with parents and guardians and providing information that helps increase support for student success.  

Advocacy efforts such as these are fueled by the self-advocacy of the school counselor. School counseling advocacy consists of efforts that provide awareness and promote support of professional roles (Cigrand et al., 2015). Professional identity is a self-conceptualized framework of how one views and implements their professional role, informing professional development, decision-making, and the delivery of services to students and schools (Brott & Myers, 1999). With emphasis on one’s professional identity, rural school counselors’ advocacy efforts can lend to increased support of professional roles and, thus, increased impact on the students served (Perry et al., 2020).  

It is no secret that a disconnect exists with the school counseling profession over professional identity stemming from the lack of knowledge of school counselors’ roles (Cinotti, 2014) and differing opinions within the profession (Baker et al., 2021). Though efforts have been made by training programs and accrediting bodies alike to define the school counseling profession (Brott & Myers, 1999), and the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) has provided guidance on the roles of school counselors within the ANM (ASCA, 2019a) and multiple position statements covering service to diverse populations and within diverse settings, many school counselors still find themselves experiencing role confusion and fulfilling non-counseling duties - fueling conflict in professional identity development. 

Rural Place-Based School Counseling 

The aim of this article is to merge the ANM with a place-based identity model to support the identity development and work of school counselors within their unique context of their rural work environments. Thus, within this section of the article we will introduce both the ANM and the place-based identity model. Next, we will discuss how the two can be merged to bring a place-based approach to rural school counseling. 

Conceptualizations of Professional School Counselor Identity 

The ANM operates as a guiding framework for school counselors and implementation of the comprehensive school counseling program (ASCA, 2019a). The principles of this framework directly correspond to the literature and development of a professional identity. There are four components of the ANM: define, deliver, manage, and assess (see Table 1). Each works in tandem to ensure school counselors comprehensively attend to the needs of students in a data-driven and equity-based manner. Professional standards and competencies (ASCA, 2019b, 2021, 2022) help define the comprehensive school counseling program while focused planning and programming allow counselors to effectively manage such. Consistent assessment of the program via data collection and analysis, as well as assessment of one’s competency and performance, guide school counselors in ensuring the effectiveness in the delivery of the program. 

Table 1 The Components of the ASCA National Model (ANM)

Note. Table adapted from the ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2019a). 

One may argue the application of the ANM is not equal across settings. It is important to note the ANM has not always existed. As school counselors were once identified as vocational counselors - who were often untrained in counseling and were teachers, the identity of the school counselor has gone through development. Such continues to this day. As previously mentioned, professional identity of school counselors has been an ongoing debate (Baker et al., 2021; Boulden & Schimmel, 2022; Brott & Myers, 1999; Cinotti, 2014; Gibbons et al., 2011; Ian et al., 2024). One could say Jesse B. Davis sparked the debate in 1913 when he introduced a vocational guidance curriculum that would fuse career with academics (Cinotti, 2014). Even then, there was conflict in professional identity.  

The conflict we continue to see today can be attributed to factors such as role confusion, lack of knowledge of the school counselor’s role and duties, and as is much of the case in rural settings, dual responsibilities. As early as 1924, scholars urged the need to afford trained counselors the ability to counsel without being assigned other duties and administration should be well-versed in the counselor’s role (Cinotti, 2014). It is hard for one to develop a professional identity when the identity of the profession is in question.  

ASCA postulates school counselors are qualified and trained professionals who provide short-term counseling, referral services, instruction, appraisal, and advisement to students and families (ASCA, 2020). Within rural settings in particular, the school counselor is uniquely positioned to provide service that attends to the overall wellness of students that may not otherwise be available. In a study of factors affecting the retention of school counselors in rural settings, participants expressed desire to work in rural locales as they provide connectedness, leading to strong rural identities (Boulden & Schimmel, 2022). The opportunity to build relationships with families and the community was a draw as it strengthened counselors’ ability to serve the population. Further, the ability to provide mental health services that are otherwise unavailable or lacking within close proximity is vital for rural school counselors, students, and families (Boulden & Schimmel, 2022). With the guidance of the ANM, we argue the importance of rural school counselors acknowledging their specific place-based identities to help guide their service in rural schools and communities. 

 Place-Based Identity Model 

This article’s conception of place-based identity is grounded in Cain’s (2020) Place-Based Identity Model. This model purports that place-based identity is complex and consists of objective and subjective components (Cain, 2020; Fulkerson & Thomas, 2019). The objective component of place-based identity includes spatial-demographic and political-economic perspectives. This may include items such as places of residence and occupations, like town names, home zip codes, or position titles. This component ranges from rural to urban. Alternatively, the subjective component of place-based identity includes social and cultural perspectives and, thus, is socially constructed. For instance, this might include hobbies, interests, and preferences, which lead people to identify more rustic or urbane. The relationship between the two components can be completely similar, somewhat similar, or completely dissimilar. For instance, a person may live in a very rural area and also socio-culturally identify as rustic. Alternatively, an individual may live in a very rural area, but socioculturally identify as very urbane. This is also true in reverse. Additionally, both the objective and subjective components are fluid across one's lifespan, meaning that an individual may change their place-based identity as they age. Furthermore, the two components also exist on a continuum, meaning that there are different levels of identification with these objective and subjective categories. For example, a person may identify as both rustic and urbane at the same time, either equally weighted or more one than the other but not completely one over the other (Cain, 2020).

Beyond the objective and subjective components, the model emphasizes how place-based identity is encapsulated within urbanormativity (Cain, 2020; Fulkerson & Thomas, 2019). Because the world is urbanizing, place relations, and in turn place-based identities, are rooted within a system of urbanormativity (Fulkerson & Thomas, 2014, 2019), an ideology that equates urbanization and urban places as standard or even superior while viewing "rural as irrelevant, unimportant, backward, deviant, and undesirable" (Fulkerson & Thomas, 2014, p. 19). These negative views of rural places and people permeate books, television, movies, school curricula, and research, as well as people's views of themselves and others (Cain & Willis, 2022; Crumb et al., 2023; Reynolds, 2017; Theobald & Wood, 2010; Thomas et al., 2011). Given this, people’s understanding of their own place-based identities are likely influenced by urbanormativity. Thus, the place-based identity model indicates this hegemony by having urbanormativity encircle the objective and components (see Figure 1).  

Merging of the ANM with Place-Based Identity 

By merging the ANM with the place-based identity model, we build our place-based approach to rural school counseling. When looking at the four components of the ANM, we specifically highlight connections between the manage and deliver components with place-based identity. Within the manage component, ANM provides program focus and planning tools to assist school counselors with the building and implementation of their school counseling programs (ASCA, 2019a). Under the program focus, one aspect is beliefs (ASCA, 2019a). When overlaying the place-based identity model with these beliefs, we can pinpoint how place and place-based identity may influence the ways rural school counselors administer their programs.  

Similar to the manage component, overlaying a place-based identity lens to the ANM can also affect the deliver component of a rural school counselor’s work. The ASCA (2019a) stated, “school counselors deliver developmentally appropriate activities and services directly to students or indirectly for students as a result of the school counselor’s interaction with others” (p. XV). Since 80% of the school counselor’s time should be spent in direct service to students, with 20% in indirect service (ASCA, 2019a), the integration of the place-based identity into this component can have a significant impact on the day-to-day work of school counselors. By merging the manage and deliver components of ANM with place-based identity, we argue that place-based identity can specifically enhance rural school counselors’ understandings of (1) their own identities, (2) their students’ identities, and (3) the power of urbanormativity in their work. 

School Counselor Identity Development 

Before school counselors can efficiently and effectively manage their programs or before they can “deliver developmentally appropriate activities and services directly to students or indirectly for students as a result of the school counselor’s interaction with others” (ASCA, 2019a, p. XV), we suggest rural school counselors should reflect on their own place-based identities. Introduced by Henri Tajfel in 1978, social identity theory postulates that a person's self-concept is formed or reinforced by their personal and social identities (Jones & Abes, 2013; Rodriguez, 2023). Thus, reflecting on their own identities may provide school counselors with insights into their understanding of their professional identities within the context of rural settings and how these combined identities may shape or impact how they carry out their programs. For instance, school counselors should consider if their current and past places of residence (i.e., the objective component in the place-based identity model) line up with the locations of their schools and the communities they serve. A congruence in locations may provide the rural school counselor with knowledge and awareness of resources available within the locale that are essential to service delivery. Similarity in locations may also result in the rural school counselor being viewed as belonging within the tight-knit rural community rather than an outsider, allowing them to gain access and trust easier. Divergent backgrounds will not inhibit the potential success of the school counselors in their new rural environments but may mean additional effort to gain familiarity and rapports.  Likewise, school counselors should consider if their socio-cultural experiences and viewpoints (i.e., the subjective component of the place-based identity model) are aligned or misaligned with that of their rural schools and broader communities. As school counselors work from both a multicultural and social justice lens, alignment with the culture and worldviews of the community is equally important. Depending on the similarity (or lack thereof) of these connections, assumptions or dissonance may exist when the school counselors are designing and implementing their programs. Thus, school counselors having deeper understandings of themselves in the context of their rural setting, will allow them to realize more about their beliefs and actions within their work.    

Student Identity Development 

While a sense of self is formed over the lifespan, identity development, in particular, is said to be formed within adolescence (Broderick & Blewitt, 2020). According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, adolescents are engaged in the identity versus confusion stage. This can be broken down into four identity statuses as adolescents explore and form commitments to their identities: achievement, diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium (Broderick & Blewitt, 2020). As one either explores or commits to an identity within a global context, they carry that awareness within their pursuit of postsecondary education or careers. As school counselors are charged with fostering identity development within students and college and career readiness, high school counselors, in particular, would benefit from acknowledging the importance of place-based identity within the parameter of students' explorations and commitments, particularly in what to make of themselves within the context of their surroundings and available resources.  

Within the merging of the ANM with the complexity of the place-based identity model, rural school counselors can become aware of the likely diversity of their students’ place-based identities. For instance, a student who is new to the rural community from a city may differ in how they see themselves compared to their peers with generational ties to the area. Even though students who have similar tenures within the rural community, and likely similar objective components to their place-based identities, they may still have various socio-cultural differences within their subjective components. These differences will likely influence how the students see themselves, how they see their rural schools and communities, and how they see their futures. The individuality of the students becomes important for rural school counselors to consider as they design and implement services that are developmentally appropriate (ASCA, 2019a) as such will change based on the uniqueness of their students.  

Power of Urbanormativity 

Moreover, no matter the background and place-based identities of the school counselors and their students, the place-based identity model purports an awareness of urbanormativity. By merging the manage and deliver components of the ANM with the place-based identity model, rural school counselors should now contemplate how urbanormativity may influence the development and implementation of their programs. For example, do the school counselors’ beliefs, vision, and implementation of a comprehensive school counseling program feed into urbanormative ideologies about their rural students, schools, or communities? For instance, if a rural school counselor believes that all students should leave their rural community because leaving the community will always lead the students to having better lives, this is an example of urbanormative thinking. Another example might be that a rural school counselor thinks that all their students are subpar of educational standards or are unlikely to succeed in postsecondary education simply because they attend a rural school. Even if the school counselors don’t believe in these attitudes themselves, during the implementation of their programs they should be mindful of explicit and hidden messages of the negative views of rural places and people that often pervade books, television, movies, school curricula, research, and other people's views (Cain & Willis, 2022; Crumb et al., 2023; Reynolds, 2017; Theobald & Wood, 2010; Thomas et al., 2011). Being aware of these negative and deficit viewpoints is especially imperative for rural school counselors versus their peers who serve suburban or urban schools because these perspectives can be harmful to rural students, schools, and communities. Therefore, to promote and enhance student success, rural school counselors should reflect upon and correct the ways urbanormativity may be impacting their work.   

Best Practices 

Our integration of the ANM with place-based identity addresses best practices as it relates to rural school and community counseling in several ways. As mentioned above, the merging of these models provides a framework for rural school counselors to gain insights into their own identity development, the identity development of their students, and the power of urbanormativity in their work. As an effective comprehensive school counseling program incorporates all components of the ANM, further exploration of the remaining components, define and assess, can yield promising reflection of school counselors’ program implementation. Consistent ethical and equitable practices along with regular assessment of the program should entail consideration of the perspectives outlined within the place-based identity model. By considering place-based identities in the implementation of the ANM, rural school counselors will be able to acquire knowledge about themselves, their students, and their communities allowing them to have a significant positive impact in their work. 

For rural school counselors to attain these successes, however, the rural school counselors must first learn about place-based identity. Since place-based identities are overlooked compared to other social identities (Cain et al., 2020; Cain & Willis, 2022) and since the place-based identity model was developed fairly recently (Cain, 2020), current rural school counselors could benefit from professional development opportunities about place-based identities. Conference presentations, book circles, or discussion forums may be some avenues for this professional development. Additionally, place-based identities should be integrated into master’s programs in school counseling alongside discussions of other social identities like race, gender, and class. Having place-based identity within professional preparation programs will benefit all school counselors, but especially school counselors who pursue work in rural areas due to the often salience of place-based identities for people from rural areas and due to the harmful effect of urbanormativity in rural settings.    

Collaboration and Community Engagement 

Although in much of this article we have emphasized rural school counselors and their students, the merging of the ANM with place-based identity can also address the importance of collaboration and community engagement. Through exploring place-based identities, rural school counselors and the school counseling profession can enhance their understanding of rural people, places, and identities. Next, through this multifaceted knowledge and familiarity with urbanormativity, we hope to deter deficit thinking that is all too common in rural education (Crumb et al., 2023) and, alternatively, support asset-based perspectives of rural people and places as well as the work of rural school counselors. Genuine collaborations and community engagement should include a recognition and appreciation of all the parties involved. Therefore, these asset-based viewpoints can transform how rural school counselors interact with educators, families, students, and community organizations in their rural areas by approaching situations with newfound lenses and approaches. 

Recommendations for Future Practice and Research  

Research on identity development and school counseling focuses on professional identity development. A school counselor's professional identity establishes their role and purpose and directly impacts their support of and service to students (Gibbons & Williams, 2011; Grimes, 2020). As rural settings come with unique challenges for school counselors, it is necessary to understand how the rural context shapes school counselors' professional identities. This article is a start to filling the current literature gap, as no known studies explore place-based identity within school counseling.  

From this initial conceptual piece, it is hoped that additional empirical studies will follow. Particularly ones that further explore this framework by exploring school counselors' perceptions of their place-based identities, perhaps employing phenomenological research methods to center rural school counselors' lived experiences of their place-based and rural identities. Narrative inquiry studies or surveys may also be used to gauge the prevalence of urbanormativity in the beliefs and work of rural school counselors. Such explorations can better inform school counseling preparation programs, particularly those who prepare graduates for rural settings.  

As a former rural school counselor who possesses a personal awareness of the uniqueness of rural settings, the first author reflects upon her own experiences while teaching school counseling trainees to provide awareness of how school counseling practice shows up within rural environments. A workable framework, such as the one we presented, will make this acknowledgment and awareness an essential practice within preparation programs. The inclusion of place-based identities in the field of school counseling will assist with the development of future school counselors and their students.  

Conclusion 

This article utilized the ANM (ASCA, 2019a) and Cain’s (2020) Place-Based Identity Model to create a framework for enhancing the management and delivery of rural school counseling programs. Through the identity development of school counselors, the identity development of students, and an awareness of urbanormativity, this place-based approach to rural school counseling aims to further support the equity-minded, positive impact rural school counselors can have in their work. Thus, it is our hope that this pioneering approach will be used to transform the future of rural school counseling. 

References 

American School Counselor Association. (2019a). The ASCA national model: A framework for school counseling programs (4th ed.). 

American School Counselor Association. (2019b). ASCA school counselor professional standards & competencies. https://www.schoolcounselor.org/getmedia/a8d59c2c-51de-4ec3-a565-a3235f3b93c3/SC-Competencies.pdf 

American School Counselor Association. (2020). The school counselor and student mental health. https://www.schoolcounselor.org/Standards-Positions/Position-Statements/ASCA-Position-Statements/The-School-Counselor-and-Student-Mental-Health#:~:text=Although%20school%20counselors%20do%20not,developmental%20needs%20of%20all%20students 

American School Counselor Association. (2021). ASCA Student Standards; Mindsets and Behaviors for Student Success. 

American School Counselor Association. (2022). ASCA ethical standards of school counselors. https://www.schoolcounselor.org/About-School-Counseling/Ethical-Responsibilities/ASCA-Ethical-Standards-for-School-Counselors-(1) 

Appling, B., & Robinson, S. (2021). K-12 school counselors utilizing critical race theory to support the racial identity development and academic achievement of African American males. Professional School Counseling, 25(1c), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X211040043  

Azano, A., P., Brenner, D., Downey, J., Eppley, K., & Schulte, A. K. (2021). Teaching in rural places: Thriving in classrooms, schools, and communities. Routledge. 

Baker, E., Zyromski, B., Granello, D. H. (2021). School or guidance counselor: How the title influences public perception. Professional School Counseling, 25(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X20981034 

Benedetto, A. E., & Olisky, T. (2001). Biracial Youth: The role of the school counselor in identity development. Professional School Counseling, 5(1), 66-69. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42732317  

Boulden, R., & Schimmel, C. (2022). Factors that affect school counselor retention in rural settings - An exploratory study. The Rural Educator, 43(4), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.55533/2643-9662.1334 

Bright, D. J. (2018). The rural gap: The need for exploration and intervention. Journal of School Counseling, 16(21), 1-27.  

Broderick, P. C. & Blewitt, P. (2020). The life span: Human development for helping professionals. Pearson Education.  

Brott, P. E. & Myers, J. E. (1999). Development of professional school counselor identity. Professional School Counseling, 2(5), 339-348. 

Cain, E. J. (2020). Place-based identity: A model. New Directions for Student Services, 2020(171-172), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/ss.20360 

Cain, E. J., & Willis, J. F. (2022). “Does it identify me?”: The multiple identities of college students from rural areas. The Rural Educator, 43(1), 74-87. https://doi.org/10.35608/ruraled.v43i1.1199 

Cigrand, D. L., Havlik, S. G., Malott, K. M., Jones, S. G. (2015). School counselors united in professional advocacy: A systems model. Journal of School Counseling, 13(8). http:/jsc.montana.edu/articles/v13n8.pdf 

Cromartie, J., & Bucholtz, S. (2008). Defining the “rural” in rural America. Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2008/june/defining-the-rural-in-rural-america/ 

Crumb, L., Chambers, C., Azano, A., Hands, A., Cuthrell, K., & Avent, M. (2023). Rural cultural wealth: Dismantling deficit ideologies of rurality. Journal for Multicultural Education, 17(2), 125-138. https://doi.org/10.1108/JME-06-2022-0076 

Duquette, K., Challenger, C. D., & Eng, T. (2023). The adolescent cultural, racial, and ethnic support (ACRES) model: A conceptual framework for guiding adolescent students of color in their cultural, racial, and ethnic identity development. Professional School Counseling, 27(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X231161509  

Fulkerson, G. M., & Thomas, A. R. (2014). Urbanization, urbanormativity, and place-structuration. In G. M. Fulkerson & A. R. Thomas (Eds.), Studies in urbanormativity: Rural community in urban society (pp. 5-30). Lexington Books. 

Fulkerson, G. M., & Thomas, A. R. (2019). Urbanormativity: Reality, representation, and every-day life. Lexington Books. 

Gibbons, M., & Williams, D. (2011). A study of the overlap of school counselor identity and duties. Journal of Counseling Research and Practice, 2(1), 34-41. https://doi.org/10.56702/UCKX8598/jcrp0201.7  

Gibbons, M. M., Hardin, E. E., Taylor, A. L., Brown, E., & Graham, D. (2020). Evaluation of an SCCT-based intervention to increase postsecondary awareness in rural Appalachian youth. Journal of Career Development, 47(4), 424-439. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845319832972  

Greene, J. H. (2019). The multicultural school counseling behavior scale: Development, psychometrics, and use. Professional School Counseling, 22(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X18816687  

Holcomb-McCoy, C. (2005). Ethnic identity development in early adolescence: Implications and recommendation for middle school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 9(2), 120-127.  

Jones, S. R. & Abes, E. S. (2013). Identity development of college students: Advancing frameworks for multiple dimensions of identity. Jossey-Bass. 

Jones, S. R. & McEwen, M. K. (2000). A conceptual model of multiple dimensions of identity. Journal of College Student Development, 41(4), 405-414. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=b6135ba3537d5960c6580df5f80ae1ef649ec7d4 

Jones, S. R., Torres, V., & Arminio, J. (2021). Negotiating the complexities of qualitative research in higher education: Essential elements and issues. Taylor & Francis Group. 

Lavalley, M. (2018). Out of the loop: Rural schools are largely left out of the research and policy discussions, exacerbating poverty, inequality, and isolation. National School Boards Association Center for Public Education. https://education.wsu.edu/documents/2018/12/center-public-education-rural-schools-report.pdf/ 

McCauley, D. (2022). A quantitative analysis of rural and urban student outcomes based on location of institution of attendance. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory, & Practice, Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1521025122114500 

National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d.). Locale classifications. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/edge/Geographic/LocaleBoundaries 

National Student Clearinghouse Research Center. (2023). High School Benchmarks. https://nscresearchcenter.org/high-school-benchmarks/ 

Patton, L.D., Renn, K.A., Guido, F.M., & Quaye, S.J. (2016). Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice (3rd ed.). Jossey-Bass. 

Perry, J. (2023). Providing college and career counseling to students in rural settings. In S. P. Foxx & J. A. Elizondo (Eds.), Post-secondary planning for all: Approaches to college and career readiness counseling for special populations (pp. 105-115). Information Age. 

Perry, J., Parikh, S., Vazquez, M., Saunders, R., Bolin, S., & Dameron, M. (2020). School counselor self-efficacy in advocating for self: How prepared are we?. The Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision, 13(4), Article 5. https://repository.wcsu.edu/jcps/vol13/iss4/5 

Placeres, V., Davis, D., Williams, N., shodiya-zeumault, s., Aiello, M., Petition, G., & Mason, E. (2022). School counselors and multicultural counseling competencies: Are we as competent as we think we are?. Professional School Counseling, 26(1a), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X221086751  

Ratcliffe, M. (2022). Redefining urban areas following the 2020 census. U.S. Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2022/12/redefining-urban-areas-following-2020-census.html 

Reynolds, W. M. (2017). Rural place: Media, violent cartographies, and chaotic disruptions. In W. H. Reynolds (Ed.), Forgotten places: Critical studies in rural education (pp. 31-44). Peter Lang Publishing. 

Rodriguez, J. (2023). Social identity theory. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health.  

Showalter, D., Hartman, S. L., Johnson, J., & Klein, R. (2019). Why rural matters 2018-2019: The time is now. Rural School and Community Trust. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED604580.pdf 

Showalter, D., Hartman, S. L., Eppley, K., Johnson, J., & Klein, R. (2023). Why rural matters 2023: Centering equity and opportunity. National Rural Education Association. https://www.nrea.net/why-rural-matters 

Simons, J. D., & Beck, M. J. (2020). Sexual and gender minority identity development: Recommendations for school counselors. Journal of School Counseling, 18(20), 1-30.  

Theobald, P., & Wood, K. (2010). Learning to be rural: Identity lessons from history, schooling, and the U.S. corporate media. In K. A. Schafft & A. Y. Jackson (Eds.), Rural education for the 21st century: Identity, place, and community in a globalizing world (pp. 17-33). The Pennsylvania University Press 

Thier, M., Longhurst, J. M., Grant, P. D., & Hocking, J. E. (2021). Research deserts: A systematic review of U.S. rural education definitions and geographies. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 37(2), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.26209/jrre3702 

Thomas, A. R., Lowe, B. M., Fulkerson, G. M., & Smith, P. J. (2011). Critical rural theory: Structure, space, culture. Lexington Books. 

Torres, V., Jones, S. R., & Renn, K. A. (2009). Identity development theories in student affairs: Origins, current status, and new approaches. Journal of College Student Development, 50(6), 577-596. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0102 

U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2024). What is rural?. https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/rural-economy-population/rural-classifications/what-is-rural/ 

Download PDF Version